The British monarch Richard III died in battle in 1485, but, for centuries, no one knew where his body ended up. In 2012, a team of archaeologists finally found it—under a parking lot. Analysis of his remains revealed details (including his scoliosis) that otherwise would have been lost to history. We are constantly unearthing artifacts that teach us more about the past; in 2022, researchers unearthed an ancient Buddhist temple in Pakistan, and, a few years before that, possibly the fastest human in history. Discuss with your team: what do we gain from knowing these smaller details about the past? If we had discovered from Richard III's DNA that he was actually of Mongol descent, or that he was a woman in disguise, would that change our view of history in a meaningful way?

• Richard III famously met his fate on Aug. 22, 1485, at the climactic Battle of Bosworth, which ended the War of the Roses and ushered in England's House of Tudor. A 21st-century look at the 15th century remains confirmed via DNA tests that they were in fact those of Richard III. "By protecting this site as a scheduled monument, we are ensuring the remains of this once lost medieval friary buried under Leicester are preserved for future generations," Heritage Minister John Glenn said Thursday. King Richard III's remains were re-interred at Leicester Cathedral in March 2015.
• Archaeologists in northwest Pakistan’s Swat Valley have unearthed a roughly 2,000-year-old Buddhist temple that could be one of the oldest in the country. Located in the town of Barikot, the structure likely dates to the second century B.C.E. It was built atop an earlier Buddhist temple dated to as early as the third century B.C.E.—within a few hundred years of the death of Buddhism’s founder, Siddhartha Gautama, between 563 and 483 B.C.E., reports Tom Metcalfe for Live Science. (read the article linked about the ancient Buddhist temple in Pakistan, it’s brief)
• The tracks belonged to several groups who crossed the wetland, including a one-legged man (only modern Aboriginal trackers were able to solve the mystery of a set of only-right-foot prints, by comparing them to the tracks of a living one-legged man from their tribe), a small child, a family of five and a group of five hunters. One man from this last group may still hold the world record for fastest runner 20,000 years later after he left his footprint. Steve Webb, a biological archaeologist with Bond University in Queensland explained to National Geographic that he “calculates that one hunter was running at 37 kilometers an hour, or as fast as an Olympic sprinter.” Presently, the current world record for the 100 meters sprint is at 9.58 seconds by Usain Bolt. This is a speed of 37.6 kilometers an hour… On a track. This ancient hunter was running in the mud. (the article doesn't have much, these are pretty much the content of it)

The remains of the ancient Roman city of Pompeii have given us insights into ancient Roman life that may not have been recorded in any surviving texts—but that's only because Mount Vesuvius happened to erupt in 79 CE, effectively freezing it in time. Sadly, countless other cities from other civilizations have come and gone; they weren't lucky enough to get embalmed by volcanoes. Discuss with your team: if a freak accident (or a higher-budget Covid sequel) wiped out all life on Earth but left all our structures, what would an alien anthropologist conclude about how we lived our lives?

• The article contains about how technology can help reconstruct the city of Pompeii. The stepping stones in the narrow streets were an example of a modern-day crosswalk, and vats that were filled with the city’s trademark delicacy before the eruptions were a sign that Pompeii was a hub for their fish sauce production. “Historians tell us that Pompeii's small-scale fish sauce suppliers were put out of business by globalization. Large-scale manufacturers from Spain flooded into Italy with their sauces, produced in large quantities for a lower price.” As the bodies were buried and left to decompose, creating empty cavities in the ashes. Archeologists were able to create moulds of the bodies by pouring plaster into those cavities. X-rays were able to determine valuable information, including the person's sex, age, and overall health. With 3D scans and photogrammetry, they can build a real model of a person's face and even see the torment on their faces in their last moments of life. "We want to know the last moment of this person, if he suffered, or he was afraid, and all this we can see from his face," says Lorenc Alapont as he studies the remains of a young Roman soldier.

How much does it matter that we try to reconstruct what the world looked like hundreds of millions of years ago? If it doesn't, at what point in the timeline should we start trying to reconstruct history?

Investigate the following major archaeological and paleontological discoveries. What strategies helped uncover them, and how did they enhance our understanding of history? What circumstances allowed for these discoveries to be preserved well enough for us to find them so many years later?

Rosetta Stone | Dead Sea Scrolls | Borobudur | Terracotta Army

• **Rosetta Stone** - The Rosetta Stone is an ancient Egyptian stele that was discovered in 1799. The stone is a granodiorite stele inscribed with a decree made in 196 BCE by Pharaoh Ptolemy V. The decree is written in three languages – Ancient Greek, Demotic, and Egyptian hieroglyphic – and is the key to understanding the Ancient Egyptian language. The Rosetta Stone has played an important role in helping us understand Ancient Egyptian culture, government, and beliefs. It was uncovered by French soldiers under Napoleon Bonaparte's army during their expedition in Egypt in 1799. The stone was discovered buried in the city of Rosetta (now known as Rashid) by soldiers working on a fort. The stone was rediscovered by British forces in 1801 and eventually brought to the British Museum in 1802. By studying the text on the stone, scholars were able to decipher the Ancient Egyptian language and gain an understanding of the Ancient Egyptian culture, government, and beliefs. Additionally, the Rosetta Stone has provided us with an understanding of the importance of languages in understanding history. The Rosetta Stone was preserved for us to find, years later by being buried underground. Additionally, the stone was carved from a single block of black basalt, a relatively hard and durable material, making it easier for the stone to survive for thousands of years. Furthermore, the text of the stone is also carved in three languages, providing an extra layer of protection for the text to survive a long time.
• **Dead Sea Scrolls** - The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of ancient manuscripts that were discovered in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea in 1947. The scrolls contain texts, some of which date back to the first century BCE, that are composed in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek; they range from scripture to commentaries, liturgies, hymns, and other texts. The scrolls are an invaluable source of information in understanding the history, culture, and beliefs of the Jewish people during the Second Temple Period. The first manuscripts, accidentally discovered in 1947 by a shepherd boy in a cave at Khirbat Qumrān on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, were almost immediately labeled Dead Sea Scrolls. The scrolls were subsequently collected by Bedouin shepherds and archeologists and eventually brought to the attention of the world in 1949. The Dead Sea Scrolls were preserved for us to find and look at them later on by being stored in caves near the Dead Sea. The caves, which were typically dark and dry, provided an ideal environment for the scrolls to remain preserved over a long period of time. Additionally, the caves provided an extra layer of protection from the elements, as well as from the ravages of time.
• **Borobudur** - Borobudur is an ancient Buddhist temple located in Indonesia that was built between the 8th and 10th centuries. The temple is a massive, multi-tiered monument that is adorned with intricate stone carvings and filled with ancient Buddhist scriptures. It was constructed as a pilgrimage site for Buddhist devotees and has become an iconic symbol of Buddhist culture. Borobudur is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Indonesia, as well as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The strategy that helped us uncover Borobudur was a combined effort of archaeological research and exploration. The first archaeological team to explore the site was led by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1814. Since then, subsequent archaeological teams have excavated the site and uncovered the hidden temple of Borobudur. Additionally, local residents have also helped uncover the temple through their own exploration and investigation. The temple was carefully constructed with beautiful Buddhist art adorned with intricate stone carvings and filled with ancient Buddhist scriptures that are still studied today. Upon the discovery of this ancient temple, modern-day individuals are able to gain an understanding of the culture, art, literature, and beliefs of an ancient civilization that still hold much relevance today. The temple was covered in layers of volcanic ash from a nearby mountain and had vegetation growing around it. This helped ensure that the temple was protected from the elements and the ravages of time. Additionally, local residents contributed to the preservation of the temple by keeping it hidden from outsiders. (National Geographic)
• **Terracotta Army** - The Terracotta Army is a collection of over 8,000 life-size terracotta statues of warriors and horses that were discovered in 1974 near the tomb of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty near Xi'an, China. The statues were created to protect the Emperor in the afterlife and are iconic symbols of ancient Chinese power and culture. The Terracotta Army is one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the twentieth century, as well as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A group of farmers stumbled upon a large collection of terracotta figures, which prompted the discoveries of the First Emperor’s Tomb and the Terracotta Army. Since then, archaeological teams have been excavating the site and studying the figures, providing us with an understanding of the culture and beliefs of ancient Chinese people. The figures provide us with an insight into the craftsmanship, art, and architecture of the time period, as well as providing us with an understanding of the burial customs and religious beliefs of the people. Additionally, the Terracotta Army provides us with an insight into the organization and military strategy of the Qin Dynasty, giving us an understanding of the political and military aspects of ancient Chinese history. The figures were buried in pits near the tomb of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty and were covered in a thick layer of soil and protective clay. The figures were also sealed in a layer of clay which provided an extra layer of protection from the elements and ravages of time. (Youtube)

Lucy (fossil) | Sue (fossil) | Machu Picchu | Petra | Sutton Hoo

• **Lucy (fossil)** - Lucy the fossil is an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. The fossil is a partial skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis, an extinct species of hominid that is believed to be a direct ancestor of modern humans. The fossil is one of the most complete specimens of an Australopithecus afarensis ever found and has helped to provide us with an understanding of the evolution of early humans and the transition from ape-like creatures to modern humans. Lucy the fossil is an invaluable source of information for scientists and is an iconic symbol of the human origins. Lucy the fossil was discovered by paleoanthropologists Donald Johanson and Tom Gray in 1974 in Ethiopia during their excavation of the Hadar site. The fossil was discovered when a fragment of the tibia bone was found on the surface of the ground. When the rest of the skeleton was excavated, it was found to be exceptionally well-preserved and was later named after the song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" by The Beatles. Uncovering Lucy the fossil has helped us understand our history by providing us with an understanding of the evolution of early humans and the transition from ape-like creatures to modern humans. The fossil provides us with insight into the anatomy, physiology, and behavior of our ancient ancestors, as well as providing us with an understanding of the complex process of human evolution over millions of years. Furthermore, discovering Lucy the fossil has also helped us to better understand our own evolution and the unique features that make us human. Lucy the fossil was preserved so well when we uncovered it due to the dry, acidic environment in which it was found. The fossil was found in a shallow depression at the Hadar site, which was filled with sediment and kept the fossil well-protected over time. Additionally, the sediment surrounding the fossil kept out oxygen and other elements that would have deteriorated the remains, allowing us to find the fossil in a near-perfect state.
• **Sue (fossil)** - Sue the fossil is an exceptionally well-preserved Tyrannosaurus rex specimen discovered in 1990 in South Dakota. The fossil is the largest and most complete Tyrannosaurus rex specimen ever found and has helped to provide us with a better understanding of the anatomy, physiology, and behavior of these ancient reptiles. Sue the fossil is a great source of information for scientists and is an iconic symbol of the power and grandeur of these ancient creatures. Sue the fossil was discovered in 1990 by paleontologist Sue Hendrickson in the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Hendrickson was at the site to survey the area for fossils when she noticed a fossilized bone fragment from what she believed to be a Tyrannosaurus rex. After further excavation, Hendrickson and her team uncovered the skeleton of a nearly intact T. rex that was later named "Sue" after Hendrickson. Sue the fossil has helped to enhance our knowledge of history and research by providing us with insights into the anatomy, physiology, and behavior of the Tyrannosaurus rex. By studying Sue, scientists are able to gain a better understanding of the structure of the T. rex, as well as its movement and behavior. Additionally, Sue has also provided us with an understanding of the paleoecology of the Late Cretaceous period, giving us a glimpse into the world in which the T. rex lived. Sue the fossil was preserved so well we find the bones intact due to the dry, acidic soil in which it was found. The fossil was discovered in sedimentary rock, which allowed the fossil to remain well preserved over time. Additionally, the dry climate of the region and the chemical composition of the sediment also helped to prevent the bones from deteriorating over time, allowing us to find the fossil in a near-perfect state.
• **Machu Picchu** - The Machu Picchu is an iconic Incan fortress located in the Peruvian Andes that was built in the 15th century. The site is renowned as one of the most impressive archaeological sites in the world, with its incredible architecture, intricate stone carvings, and stunning views of the surrounding landscape. Machu Picchu is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. The Machu Picchu was discovered in 1911 by the American archaeologist Hiram Bingham. Bingham was searching for the lost city of Vilcabamba, the last refuge of the Incas, when he stumbled upon the ruins of the Machu Picchu. Bingham and his team of explorers proceeded to excavate the site and uncover its secrets, unlocking the mysterious of the Inca civilization and the site’s amazing architecture. Discovering the Machu Picchu has helped us to understand our history by providing us with an understanding of the Inca civilization, its culture, and its customs. The site has allowed us to gain an understanding of the Inca's beliefs and values, as well as their impressive architecture and engineering. Additionally, the site has helped us to gain an appreciation for the culture and values of the Inca that have been lost to time. The Machu Picchu was preserved for us to find it many years later due to its remote location high in the mountains of the Peruvian Andes. The site was hidden and isolated for centuries, until it was discovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911. Additionally, the dry climate of the region and the thick layer of vegetation surrounding the site acted as a protective barrier to the elements, which kept the ruins intact over time.
• **Petra** - Petra is an ancient city located in modern-day Jordan that was built by the Nabataeans in the 6th century BC. The city is renowned for its incredible architecture, which includes grand monuments, intricate stone carvings, and massive tombs. It is also home to the famous Treasury (Al-Khazneh) and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Petra was rediscovered in 1812 by Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, a Swiss explorer. Burckhardt was searching for the lost city of Petra and had heard local Bedouin stories of a hidden, ancient city hidden in the mountains. After several months of searching, he finally stumbled upon the massive ruins of the city, unlocking the mysteries of the ancient Nabataeans and their incredible architecture. The discovery of Petra has helped to enhance our understanding of history by providing us with insights into the culture, customs, and beliefs of the ancient Nabataeans. The city has allowed us to gain a better understanding of their architecture and engineering, as well as their impressive art and culture. Additionally, the discovery of Petra has also helped us to gain an appreciation for the unique culture and values of the Nabataeans that have been lost to time. Petra was able to preserve itself after so many years due to its remote location in the mountains of Jordan. The city was hidden and isolated for centuries, until it was discovered in 1812 by Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. Additionally, the desert climate of the region and the thick layer of sandstone surrounding the site acted as a protective barrier, which kept the ruins intact over time.
• **Sutton Hoo** - Sutton Hoo is an archaeological site located in Suffolk, England, that contains the remains of an early Anglo-Saxon burial ground dating back to the 6th or 7th centuries AD. The site is famous for its incredible burial mounds, which contained a variety of artifacts, including weapons, armor, and jewelry, shedding light on the culture and customs of the early Anglo-Saxons. Additionally, Sutton Hoo is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sutton Hoo was discovered in 1939 by archaeologist Basil Brown. Brown was excavating a mound at the site when he stumbled upon the ancient burial ground. After months of painstaking work, Brown and his team uncovered the incredible artifacts buried within the mounds, unlocking the mysteries of the early Anglo-Saxon civilization. The discovery of Sutton Hoo has helped to enhance our understanding of history by providing us with insights into the culture, customs, and beliefs of the early Anglo-Saxons. The site has allowed us to gain a better understanding of their art and culture, as well as their impressive weapons and jewelry. Additionally, the discovery of Sutton Hoo has also helped us to gain an appreciation for the unique culture and values of the Anglo-Saxons that have been lost to time. Sutton Hoo was preserved even after many years later due to the acidic soil in which it was located. The soil in the area helps to preserve the artifacts by preventing the items from degrading and disintegrating over time. Additionally, the dry climate of the region also helped to keep the artifacts intact, allowing us to discover them in a near-perfect state.

Jurassic Park, Godzilla, and The Land Before Time depict dinosaurs as giant scaly lizards—and with good reason, as paleontologists used to picture them that way. But more recent research has suggested otherwise; it's possible that Spielberg's T. rex should have been a thing with animatronic feathers. That's what the field of paleoart aims to visualize, even if the evidence is incomplete. If a future paleoartist tried to reconstruct our world using incomplete information, what would they get right? What would they get wrong? Do you think they'd be stumped by fossil evidence of dogs wearing sweaters?

• “Many of these dinosaur skeletons are covered in feathers, including two tyrannosaurs – close cousins of T. rex – called Yutyrannus and Dilong. This means that the ancestors of T. rex had feathers, which means T. rex probably did too.” From the article, it stated that feathers, muscle, skin, internal organs and other soft structures don’t often preserve as fossils. Most fossils are of hard objects like bones, teeth and shells, which can be more easily turned to rock and survive the ravages of geological time.
• The second article linked are drawings of what could possibly be during the paleolithic period. There are various interpretation of what the period might have look like including the description and detail of the dinosaurs. Take note of the artist and the art work.

Terms and techniques

excavation | remote sensing | zooarchaeology & archaeobotany

• excavation- The procedure by which archaeologists define, retrieve, and record cultural and biological remains found in the ground. Past activities leave traces in the form of house foundations, graves, artifacts, bones, seeds, and numerous other traces indicative of human experience.
• remote sensing- Ability to collect information about places or objects at or under the surface of the ground, usually without having to disturb the ground. Remote sensing has been able to assist archaeological research in several ways during the past years, including detection of subsurface remains, monitoring archaeological sites and monuments, archaeolandscapes studies, etc.
• zooarchaeology & archaeobotany- The science that systematically studies and interprets animal bones recovered from archaeological excavations with the help of other archaeological data and ethnographic observations. Despite its diverse, global, and interdisciplinary heritage, zooarchaeology shares two related goals: to understand the biology and ecology of animals and to understand the relationships between humans and animals through time and space.

carbon dating | dendrochronology | pseudoarchaeology

• carbon dating- The determination of the age of old material (such as an archaeological or paleontological specimen) by means of the content of carbon-14. As long as there is organic material present, radiocarbon dating is a universal dating technique that can be applied anywhere in the world. It is good for dating the last 50,000 years to about 400 years ago and can create chronologies for areas that previously lacked calendars.
• dendrochronology- The science of dating events and variations in environment in former periods by comparative study of growth rings in trees and aged wood. Dendrochronology can show us more than just the age of trees.  It can also give us a glimpse into past climatic conditions. In temperate zones, one year of growth will equal one tree ring. A wet growing season makes a wider ring, while a dry growing season makes a narrower ring.
• **pseudoarchaeology** (feel free to watch this video I linked to understand it better)- The interpretation of the past from outside the archaeological  science community, which rejects the accepted data gathering and analytical methods of the discipline. Methods include exaggeration of evidence, dramatic or romanticized conclusions, use of fallacy, and fabrication of evidence (i.e. “Aliens built the pyramids of Giza.”).